Gioiosa et al (2008) examined the relationship between hormones, genes, nocicieption (responsiveness to pain), and opioid pain relief in mice. This study used C57BL/6J mice of "four core genotypes": XX and XY gonadal males, and XX and XY gonadal females. The mice were tested after gonadectomy (it does not appear that intact mice were tested in this study). Gioiosa et al found that XX mice were quicker to respond to discomfort than XY mice, and that this difference increased after morphine administration. The study concludes that the gene types directly affect nociception independently of hormones.
This is one I actually used to get asked a lot: "does ____ feel different after being on testosterone". My genes haven't changed, but my hormonal environment is way different. Here's the thing, though: memory sucks. I can't really remember what things were like before transition. I've heard a lot of transwomen say that their skin got softer and more sensitive after going on estrogen. I can't say I noticed mine getting less sensitive, and people still remark on its softness (which makes me a little self-conscious). Maybe it's my XX genes trumping. Maybe the skin changes just don't work as well from FTM as they do from MTF.
edit: Okay, I admit it. The abstract and methods of this study have confused me, and I can't tell if they experimented on intact mice or not. I have written the corresponding author, and I hope to update.
edit2 Only gonadectomied mice were used in this experiment. See comments for author response.
see also 10/10/06: Conference: The Painful Truth
Wednesday, April 30, 2008
Tuesday, April 29, 2008
Relational Aggression
Relational aggression (RA: psychological aggression within a relationship) is so tied to ideas of gender differences that one book even calls it "female bullying" (Dellasega & Nixon, 2003). Archer and Coyne's 2005 review suggests that "girls may be just as aggressive as boys when manipulative forms of aggression, such as gossiping and spreading rumors, are included." However, some studies find boys to be more likely to use social methods of aggression as well as physical methods, such as Lindeman et al (1997) and Henington et al (1998). Ostrov et al (2005) suggest the distinction between RA and prosocial behavior may be in the "eye of the beholder" and may follow gender stereotypes due to observer bias.
The Ophelia Project, a non-profit dedicated to raising awareness about RA, states that there are no gender effects in RA. Although inspired by Pipher's 1995 book on adolescent girls, the Ophelia Project's website states:
I am all about Ostrov: observer bias is definitely going to have an effect on how children's interactions are rated. In a real-world setting, it's also going to have an effect on how those interactions are handled by the child. You know when a toddler falls down and you don't make a big deal about it so that the child doesn't get more worked up? There's certainly some of that with social stumbles as well. I spent most of my life overreacting to rejection (real or imagined). I still have trouble with it. Talking with my mother on the phone last week, I found out that she does too, and I wouldn't be surprised if that's not a coincidence.
The Ophelia Project, a non-profit dedicated to raising awareness about RA, states that there are no gender effects in RA. Although inspired by Pipher's 1995 book on adolescent girls, the Ophelia Project's website states:
"As our research progressed, we found that there are no gender effects when it comes to relational aggression. Today's boys need our help just as much as today's girls. Our mission evolved over time to encompass both populations, and we are also branching out to explore the issue of covert aggression in the adult workplace.
I am all about Ostrov: observer bias is definitely going to have an effect on how children's interactions are rated. In a real-world setting, it's also going to have an effect on how those interactions are handled by the child. You know when a toddler falls down and you don't make a big deal about it so that the child doesn't get more worked up? There's certainly some of that with social stumbles as well. I spent most of my life overreacting to rejection (real or imagined). I still have trouble with it. Talking with my mother on the phone last week, I found out that she does too, and I wouldn't be surprised if that's not a coincidence.
Monday, April 28, 2008
Effect of sex ratios on grades
A press release from the American friends of Tel Aviv University (2008) indicates that mixed-gender classrooms may be beneficial, according to economist Analia Schlosser. Lavy and Schlosser's (2007) working paper indicates that the grades of boys and girls are both improved when over 60% of the class is girls (versus greater numbers of boys). Schlosser and Lavy also point out that higher proportions of girls increased boys' involvement in classes:
I became a theatre major because of a cute boy. Well, okay, because of a handful of cute boys, and a dearth of cute boys in my math majors classes. Never let a 16 year old make life-changing decisions, that's all I have to say about that. Wow. I just realized that I went into theatre from math to meet straight men. It worked, but I'm surprised it took me this long to realize it shouldn't have.
"the proportion of girls in a class causes an increase in the enrollment of boys in all subjects except biology and computer science, while there is a much smaller parallel effect on girls. The only significant effect among girls is on math enrollment, though the effect is about half the size of the effect among boys." -- Lavy & Schlosser, p 16.
I became a theatre major because of a cute boy. Well, okay, because of a handful of cute boys, and a dearth of cute boys in my math majors classes. Never let a 16 year old make life-changing decisions, that's all I have to say about that. Wow. I just realized that I went into theatre from math to meet straight men. It worked, but I'm surprised it took me this long to realize it shouldn't have.
Friday, April 25, 2008
Human Sex Ratios
On Tuesday , we noted a couple of animal studies that suggested that eggs preferentially select the sex of the inseminating sperm. Mathews, Johnson, and Neil (2008) have demonstrated maternal influence on infant sex in humans, tied to diet pre-conception. Women's diets were divided into three groups by "energy intake". The highest energy intake group bore 56% boys, while the lowest third bore 45%. There did not appear to be any influence of embryo sex on diet during pregnancy. Eating breakfast cereal seemed especially strongly correlated with having sons, which the researchers suggest is tied to not skipping breakfast. "This research may help to explain why in developed countries, where many young women choose to have low calorie diets, the proportion of boys born is falling," said Mathews (ScienceDirect, 2008).
I have to try to laugh when I read the justifications authors give for their research. I know part of the point of the article is to show how important your research is, but I just can't get worked up over falling sex ratios. This is the first I've heard about a boy shortage -- well, except for occasional "man shortage" complaints, but I tend to tune them out. I've been trying to notice what I don't notice lately, and apart from getting a headache, I've determined that I'm kind of a jerk.
Update ScienceDaily (Jan. 17, 2009) "Study Refutes Notion That Eating A Certain Cereal Will Result In More Male Babies": "Young, Bang & Oktay assert that the result of the original study is easily explained as chance."
I have to try to laugh when I read the justifications authors give for their research. I know part of the point of the article is to show how important your research is, but I just can't get worked up over falling sex ratios. This is the first I've heard about a boy shortage -- well, except for occasional "man shortage" complaints, but I tend to tune them out. I've been trying to notice what I don't notice lately, and apart from getting a headache, I've determined that I'm kind of a jerk.
Update ScienceDaily (Jan. 17, 2009) "Study Refutes Notion That Eating A Certain Cereal Will Result In More Male Babies": "Young, Bang & Oktay assert that the result of the original study is easily explained as chance."
Thursday, April 24, 2008
Stereotype Reactance
We have talked a lot in Difference Blog about stereotype threat: the tendency of people to perform in accordance with negative stereotypes. Curhan and Overbeck (2008) used a unequal-status roleplay experiment to demonstrate stereotype reactance: when people perform contrary to their gender stereotype. The roleplay was of a job interview between a high-status recruiter and a low-status job applicant. In the high-status condition "men responded to impression motivation by yielding value to their subordinates, whereas women responded by claiming value for themselves." Kray et al (2004) found that by explicitly linking gender-stereotyped traits to expected outcomes, they could influence women to outperform men in negotiation roleplays, which was attributed to stereotype reactance.
I feel like this literature is more in line with my experience, but I readily admit that my experience is non-typical. However, I have to wonder if there are differences in the priming methods used in the stereotype threat experiments versus the stereotype reactance experiments. As far as I know, the threat experiments focus on telling participants that differences are genetically based (permanent and beyond their control), while the differences emphasized in the reactance experiments appear to be behaviorally based, and may seem more controllable. I guess I'm saying that I'm curious whether there's a locus of control confound. I think it's also worth noting that this only seems to take effect in the high-status condition.
I feel like this literature is more in line with my experience, but I readily admit that my experience is non-typical. However, I have to wonder if there are differences in the priming methods used in the stereotype threat experiments versus the stereotype reactance experiments. As far as I know, the threat experiments focus on telling participants that differences are genetically based (permanent and beyond their control), while the differences emphasized in the reactance experiments appear to be behaviorally based, and may seem more controllable. I guess I'm saying that I'm curious whether there's a locus of control confound. I think it's also worth noting that this only seems to take effect in the high-status condition.
Wednesday, April 23, 2008
Unattended Fearful Faces
Pessoa et al (2005) suggested that ignoring fearful stimuli (unattended fearful faces) reduced amygdala activation, but did not report a sex difference (probably due to their subject sample: 20 subjects, 7 female). Dickie and Armony (2008) found that women with higher trait anxiety experienced greater amygdala activation than low-anxiety women during an unattended fearful faces task. This relationship was not present in the males in this experiment.
In addition to my normal concerns about attention studies (how do you tell that your subject really isn't paying attention?), this one bothers me because of the subgroup analysis. They started with 40 subjects, had to throw out 10 for various technical problems, ended up with 14 women, and then treated trait anxiety as a continuous variable. I don't feel like you're left with much to analyze at that point. The women also had higher failure rates on the non-face-task during fearful face exposure, which suggests that they actually were paying attention. Then again, defining attention is one of those questions that starts to border on philosophy, and so I tend to drift out a bit when it's discussed.
In addition to my normal concerns about attention studies (how do you tell that your subject really isn't paying attention?), this one bothers me because of the subgroup analysis. They started with 40 subjects, had to throw out 10 for various technical problems, ended up with 14 women, and then treated trait anxiety as a continuous variable. I don't feel like you're left with much to analyze at that point. The women also had higher failure rates on the non-face-task during fearful face exposure, which suggests that they actually were paying attention. Then again, defining attention is one of those questions that starts to border on philosophy, and so I tend to drift out a bit when it's discussed.
Tuesday, April 22, 2008
Animal sex ratios
Grant et al (2008) suggest that there may be a maternal influence on the sex of the infant. Eggs developed in a higher-testosterone follicular environment were more likely to be fertilized by Y-chromosome bearing (male) sperm, suggesting that the eggs were preferentially inseminated by these sperm.
Whether this is possible has been argued for some time. Trivers and Willard (1973) argued that more fit mothers would produce more sons, because a more fit male specimen is likely to out-reproduce a more fit female individual, and the reverse is true when they are less fit (parental investment). Clutton-Brock et al (1984) found that higher-ranked female red deer bore more sons than their subordinates. However, Silk et al (2005) found that maternal rank did not influence sex ratios in baboons.
Trivers and Willard pointed out that as women got older, they were more likely to bear daughters -- but later critics said that their argument didn't hold up. I didn't examine it closely enough to weigh in either way. For what it's worth: I'm first-born.
I'm more than a little irked over the testosterone-equals-dominance thing, but since that's sort of like being irked that the sky is blue, I'm trying to ignore it.
Whether this is possible has been argued for some time. Trivers and Willard (1973) argued that more fit mothers would produce more sons, because a more fit male specimen is likely to out-reproduce a more fit female individual, and the reverse is true when they are less fit (parental investment). Clutton-Brock et al (1984) found that higher-ranked female red deer bore more sons than their subordinates. However, Silk et al (2005) found that maternal rank did not influence sex ratios in baboons.
Trivers and Willard pointed out that as women got older, they were more likely to bear daughters -- but later critics said that their argument didn't hold up. I didn't examine it closely enough to weigh in either way. For what it's worth: I'm first-born.
I'm more than a little irked over the testosterone-equals-dominance thing, but since that's sort of like being irked that the sky is blue, I'm trying to ignore it.
Monday, April 21, 2008
Small Business, Big Range
A working paper by the Small Business Association (2007, pdf) highlights some possible differences between male and female business owners. As has turned up in other surveys (see also "Women Entrepeneurs, 12/10/07), women seem to start businesses for different reasons, and with different expectations, than their male counterparts, according to the SBA report. When these are controlled, however, there is no difference in business performance.
Joyce Smith, writing for the Associated Press (2008) talked with professional speaker Candy Whirley, women's business advocate Sherry Turner, and entrepeneur Paula Jagemann about the SBA report. All three women focused on women's greater need for flexibility in their schedules due to family responsibilities. Turner suggested that women seem to work fewer hours because they underreport. Whirley points out that women may start more than one business, and the performance of a single business does not reflect the performance of its owner. Jagemann comments that she finds women to be "more multitask-oriented and efficient" and stresses the need for more female role models.
The range of small businesses is so wide, I wonder how they control for the expectations. My family has been selling craft supplies and their own artwork since I was little; the sales have been my family's central source of income since my father died. I hadn't thought of them as entrepeneurs, probably because the business had been a hobby-expense-offset the whole time I was growing up.
I wonder why the women interviewed by the AP seem to be arguing that women work more than the SBA report suggests? If that's the case, then the difference in business performance wouldn't be due to the difference in time devoted to the business; that would suggest the female business owners were less efficient.
Joyce Smith, writing for the Associated Press (2008) talked with professional speaker Candy Whirley, women's business advocate Sherry Turner, and entrepeneur Paula Jagemann about the SBA report. All three women focused on women's greater need for flexibility in their schedules due to family responsibilities. Turner suggested that women seem to work fewer hours because they underreport. Whirley points out that women may start more than one business, and the performance of a single business does not reflect the performance of its owner. Jagemann comments that she finds women to be "more multitask-oriented and efficient" and stresses the need for more female role models.
The range of small businesses is so wide, I wonder how they control for the expectations. My family has been selling craft supplies and their own artwork since I was little; the sales have been my family's central source of income since my father died. I hadn't thought of them as entrepeneurs, probably because the business had been a hobby-expense-offset the whole time I was growing up.
I wonder why the women interviewed by the AP seem to be arguing that women work more than the SBA report suggests? If that's the case, then the difference in business performance wouldn't be due to the difference in time devoted to the business; that would suggest the female business owners were less efficient.
Friday, April 18, 2008
Sharing passwords
InfoSecurity Europe (2008) set up a little social engineering experiment: they set up a station outside London's Liverpool Street Station, and offered passers-by chocolate bars or a chance at a trip to Paris in exchange for their passwords and other personal information. 45% of women gave their password, compared to only 10% of men. Contact information was more balanced, with 62% of women and 60% of men providing it.
Did I just read "pretty researchers"? Yeah, I thought I did. Oh well, I'm one to talk. I have serious concerns about this survey anyway (how many men vs. women answered? What time of day did they survey? what was the age range of respondents?) but I am amused by what feels like a cultural artifact there.
I can't imagine a situation where I would give my password to a stranger on the street. My work passwords, however, are practically a matter of public record. Actually, that's not true. For both work and personal use, I have three different levels of passwords: one I'll share with nearly anyone, one I'll share with only the most trusted people, and one that I don't share with anyone.
"After the survey was completed, each worker was told ‘We do not really want your personal information this is part of an exercise to raise awareness about information security as part of Information Security Awareness Week which runs from the 21-25 April 2008. We will tabulate results to find out how good people are at securing their information.’ At this one man told one of our pretty researchers you look so well dressed and honest I did not think you could be a criminal, which was a sentiment echoed by many others." -- InfoSecurity Press release
Did I just read "pretty researchers"? Yeah, I thought I did. Oh well, I'm one to talk. I have serious concerns about this survey anyway (how many men vs. women answered? What time of day did they survey? what was the age range of respondents?) but I am amused by what feels like a cultural artifact there.
I can't imagine a situation where I would give my password to a stranger on the street. My work passwords, however, are practically a matter of public record. Actually, that's not true. For both work and personal use, I have three different levels of passwords: one I'll share with nearly anyone, one I'll share with only the most trusted people, and one that I don't share with anyone.
Thursday, April 17, 2008
Cultural immigration
Dalgard and Thapa (2007) found differential gender effects on mental health from integration into a Western culture (Norway) in non-Western immigrants (from Eastern Europe, Asia or Africa). Men's mental health was positively affected by greater social integration, while women's was negatively affected. The researchers suggest that this may be due to greater differences in women's (vs men's) gender roles between the Western and non-Western cultures. An alternate theory proposed by Remennick (1999), based on Russian immigrants to Israel, suggests that the downward mobility imposed by immigration puts excessive pressure on women, due to their role as caregivers. The Russian/Israeli women studied by Remennick were often responsible for the care of their children and their aging parents.
I'm perfectly willing to believe that social adjustment is harder for female immigrants than male immigrants. Hell, even as a dyed-in-the-wool Westerner from a liberal part of a (used to be) liberal country, I still feel like women get mixed messages that are hard to reconcile. I can't imagine how rough it would be if my idea of a woman's responsibilities was more deeply ingrained.
I'm perfectly willing to believe that social adjustment is harder for female immigrants than male immigrants. Hell, even as a dyed-in-the-wool Westerner from a liberal part of a (used to be) liberal country, I still feel like women get mixed messages that are hard to reconcile. I can't imagine how rough it would be if my idea of a woman's responsibilities was more deeply ingrained.
Wednesday, April 16, 2008
Y: it matters
Most sex-linked diseases and traits are carried on the X-chromosome; y-linked abnormalities are uncommon. Y-linked genes are especially interesting because they are passed clonally (without change) from father to son (see Hughes et al, 2005). Jobling and Tyler-Smith (1995) suggested over a decade ago that this would allow male-lineage tracing in human populations, much as mitochondrial DNA can be used to trace female lineage.
The main gene studied on the Y-chromosome is the Sex-determining Region Y (SRY), which is thought to cause the expression of male characteristics. Persons with XY chromosomes containing an inactive SRY will be female (famous cases of this involved genetic testing at the 1992 Olympic games). Few traits unrelated to sexual differentiation have been tied to the Y-chromosome. Most recently, Petersen et al (2008) discovered a Y-chromosome linkage for non-syndromic deafness.
When I first started coming out to family and family friends (a few months after addressing my transition with my personal friends) I was surprised by how many people asked if I'd undergone genetic testing. It wasn't something that occurred to me. I'm sure it was difficult for people who'd known me in childhood to adjust their mental picture, but the idea that it would be easier to handle if I had an undiscovered genetic abnormality baffled me then, and still bothers me now. The differentiation between the validity of "medical" and "psychological" states strikes me as pretty arbitrary.
The main gene studied on the Y-chromosome is the Sex-determining Region Y (SRY), which is thought to cause the expression of male characteristics. Persons with XY chromosomes containing an inactive SRY will be female (famous cases of this involved genetic testing at the 1992 Olympic games). Few traits unrelated to sexual differentiation have been tied to the Y-chromosome. Most recently, Petersen et al (2008) discovered a Y-chromosome linkage for non-syndromic deafness.
When I first started coming out to family and family friends (a few months after addressing my transition with my personal friends) I was surprised by how many people asked if I'd undergone genetic testing. It wasn't something that occurred to me. I'm sure it was difficult for people who'd known me in childhood to adjust their mental picture, but the idea that it would be easier to handle if I had an undiscovered genetic abnormality baffled me then, and still bothers me now. The differentiation between the validity of "medical" and "psychological" states strikes me as pretty arbitrary.
Tuesday, April 15, 2008
Tax Day
The blog Overcoming Bias discussed a "man tax" last December: a differential tax schedule for men and women. The idea is based in no small part upon Alesina et al's (2007) working paper on the Gender-Based Tax system that they suggest would encourage "a more balanced allocation of house work and working opportunities between males and females".
Considering that I've referenced Overcoming Bias before, I don't know how I missed this gem in December, but it being April 15th (the day when taxes are due in the U.S.) I made a specific search for taxes. The paper acknowledges that this model assumes that women are married (to men) in a household with substantial shared income. This may have been more common in 1950 (when only 35% of women lived without a spouse), but as of 2005, over half of women were on their own (NYT, 2007).
"According to optimal taxation theory a benevolent government should tax less the goods and services which have a more elastic supply. Women labor supply is more elastic than men’s. Therefore, tax rates on labor income should be lower for women than for men."
Considering that I've referenced Overcoming Bias before, I don't know how I missed this gem in December, but it being April 15th (the day when taxes are due in the U.S.) I made a specific search for taxes. The paper acknowledges that this model assumes that women are married (to men) in a household with substantial shared income. This may have been more common in 1950 (when only 35% of women lived without a spouse), but as of 2005, over half of women were on their own (NYT, 2007).
Monday, April 14, 2008
Instrumental
The Guardian (UK, 2008) reports that children learning the harp and flute are overwhelmingly female (90% and 89%, respectively) while those studying guitar and drums are disproportionately male (81% and 75%). The survey of UK music programs, by Hallam, Rogers and Creech, was first published for analysis of minority participation in music programs in 2005, according to a press release (Institute of Education, University of London, 2008).* According to the press release, some instruments do not have gender baggage: "similar proportions of boys and girls in England play the cornet, French horn, saxophone, tenor horn and African drums."
When I was five or six, my mother gave me a mandolin with the phrase "I thought this would be a good instrument for a little girl." That's sort of weird, now that I think about it, but I was a pretty, pretty princess, so that sort of thing was important to me at the time. I had the mandolin until college, but I never learned to play it. I took a few weeks of lessons right away and lost interest. The clarinet ran a very similar course, but my mother was smarter that time and rented it.
*Neither the original study ("Survey of Local Authority Music Services" 2005) or the new analysis of the old data ("Gender differences in musical instrument choice" 2008) seem to have online materials available. sorry.
When I was five or six, my mother gave me a mandolin with the phrase "I thought this would be a good instrument for a little girl." That's sort of weird, now that I think about it, but I was a pretty, pretty princess, so that sort of thing was important to me at the time. I had the mandolin until college, but I never learned to play it. I took a few weeks of lessons right away and lost interest. The clarinet ran a very similar course, but my mother was smarter that time and rented it.
*Neither the original study ("Survey of Local Authority Music Services" 2005) or the new analysis of the old data ("Gender differences in musical instrument choice" 2008) seem to have online materials available. sorry.
Friday, April 11, 2008
Fear of Fraud
An Australian survey conducted on behalf of VeCommerce found that women were more concerned about identity theft than men (ITMarketer press release (2008). The survey asked 216 Australians about their preferences and concerns when verifying their identity over the phone, such as to a bank. 45% of the men favored "biometric voice identification" versus 39% of women. Alternatives offered to respondents were "revealing your PIN" or answering "personal details" questions.
75% of the women surveyed said they were concerned about fraud and identity theft, versus only 51% of them men. Women were also more likely to report being careful about sharing personal information (69% to 47%) and that they would be willing to may more for "proactive" security (44% to 29%). Perhaps women are more concerned about fraud because it's a crime they're more willing to commit; The Economic Crime Institute (2007, pdf) reported that 36% of identity thieves were women, representing a higher proportion than for other crimes (MSNBC, 2007)
I was tempted to commit fraud once. A company I didn't patronize mailed me a store credit card with someone else's name on it. I ended up sending it back, but I thought about whether I could get away with it. Then I thought: what the hell would I buy at "Dress Barn"?
I'm really not that afraid of identity theft, and I think it's because I have gone through the credit card charge challenge process. It wasn't that bad or inconvenient. I actually ended up feeling guilty, because it turned out that it was a valid charge. I ended up causing a lot of trouble (and fees) for a small business owner. I was sad.
75% of the women surveyed said they were concerned about fraud and identity theft, versus only 51% of them men. Women were also more likely to report being careful about sharing personal information (69% to 47%) and that they would be willing to may more for "proactive" security (44% to 29%). Perhaps women are more concerned about fraud because it's a crime they're more willing to commit; The Economic Crime Institute (2007, pdf) reported that 36% of identity thieves were women, representing a higher proportion than for other crimes (MSNBC, 2007)
I was tempted to commit fraud once. A company I didn't patronize mailed me a store credit card with someone else's name on it. I ended up sending it back, but I thought about whether I could get away with it. Then I thought: what the hell would I buy at "Dress Barn"?
I'm really not that afraid of identity theft, and I think it's because I have gone through the credit card charge challenge process. It wasn't that bad or inconvenient. I actually ended up feeling guilty, because it turned out that it was a valid charge. I ended up causing a lot of trouble (and fees) for a small business owner. I was sad.
Thursday, April 10, 2008
Gender and Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Taqui et al (2008) tested the prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD) among Pakistani medical students, finding that more men than women (7.5% to 4.5%) reached the DSM-IV criteria for BDD in this population (mostly over weight concerns). Overall, 5.8% of the medical were diagnosed with BDD. Rief et al (2006) surveyed a German sample (ages 14-99) and found a rate of 1.7% for BDD, affecting 1.9% of women vs. 1.4% of men (ns). In the United States, Mayville et al (1999) found that students in an ethnically diverse high school in Stockton, CA showed a BDD rate of 2.2%, which was similar to the rates found by James Rosen and Reiter in their study of white college students in 1992. Mayville et al's sample found slightly more girls than boys reaching BDD criteria (2.8% to 1.7%, ns), and found that girls (in general) were more dissatisfied with their bodies than boys were.
One factor that may complicate interpretation of these results is Phillips et al's (2006) finding that men and women appear to score differently on different BDD measures. In the same group of 200 patients known to have BDD, women's symptoms were rated more severe on one measure, while men's were rated more severe on another.
Either (a) something went really pear-shaped (pun intended) in the Pakistani study or (b) there's something especially different about women who can hack it in a medical school in Karachi -- and I'm equally willing to believe either version. One common thread in all of today's studies is that women overwhelmingly report non-clinical levels of dissatisfaction with their bodies. When I was female, I always felt very awkward expressing any positive sentiment about my body to other women. Self-deprecation is so culturally ingrained, I still find myself doing it. I do find that people's reactions are different to a man calling himself fat than to a woman calling herself fat: no one seems to want to reassure me anymore, so I may eventually learn to stop fishing for compliments.
One factor that may complicate interpretation of these results is Phillips et al's (2006) finding that men and women appear to score differently on different BDD measures. In the same group of 200 patients known to have BDD, women's symptoms were rated more severe on one measure, while men's were rated more severe on another.
Either (a) something went really pear-shaped (pun intended) in the Pakistani study or (b) there's something especially different about women who can hack it in a medical school in Karachi -- and I'm equally willing to believe either version. One common thread in all of today's studies is that women overwhelmingly report non-clinical levels of dissatisfaction with their bodies. When I was female, I always felt very awkward expressing any positive sentiment about my body to other women. Self-deprecation is so culturally ingrained, I still find myself doing it. I do find that people's reactions are different to a man calling himself fat than to a woman calling herself fat: no one seems to want to reassure me anymore, so I may eventually learn to stop fishing for compliments.
Wednesday, April 9, 2008
From Sight to Space
Some researchers attribute differences in visuo-spatial performance between men and women to differences in translating visual cues to spatial information. Gorbet and Sergio (2007) explore this idea through fMRI and "visual-to-motor transformation tasks." 10 male and 9 female subjects underwent BOLD fMRI scans while touching targets on a screen or directing a cursor via joystick (see figure).
You know, there's a gender difference stereotype floating around that I have never been able to find sufficient evidence to support: that women are better at multitasking. I would argue that this experiment is actually testing multitasking ability, because to me it seems obvious that pointing your eyes and pointing your hand are two separate activities. I think I would have liked a "closed-eyes" control for this task in addition to the "eyes-only" control.
"female subjects showed greater amounts of BOLD activity relative to males during conditions in which the eye and arm movement components of the task were made in the same spatial direction.... greater amounts of activity were observed in male subjects in ‘rotated’ conditions in which the directions of eye and arm movements were made in opposite directions. These findings suggest the existence of differences in the ways in which the male and female brains produce non-standard motor responses [non-standard defined earlier as "where the motor response is spatially dissociated from the guiding visual cue"]" -- Gorbet & Sergio, pp 1235-1236
You know, there's a gender difference stereotype floating around that I have never been able to find sufficient evidence to support: that women are better at multitasking. I would argue that this experiment is actually testing multitasking ability, because to me it seems obvious that pointing your eyes and pointing your hand are two separate activities. I think I would have liked a "closed-eyes" control for this task in addition to the "eyes-only" control.
Tuesday, April 8, 2008
Stimulant use in college
The University of Michigan Health System (2008) warns that between 5 and 35% of students are misusing stimulants as study aids, leading to irritability, depression, and headaches (source not given). These numbers are reasonably consistent with Hall et al (2005)'s survey which found that 17% of men and 11% of women in a university sample had used prescription stimulants "for non-medical purposes," and 27% overall had taken them during finals week. Being offered stimulants was the strongest predictor for women; knowing where to get stimulants was the strongest predictor for men.
Four other items on Hall et al's survey showed significant gender differences:
Every illegal drug I ever used was offered to me. I'd feel like more of a mooch about it if I couldn't count the instances on my fingers, and the substances on my hands. Non-prescription stimulants, on the other hand, well... I'm glad that there weren't energy drinks when I was in college. There was one semester where I was routinely alternating Vivarin and Ginseng caplets on odd and even hours, in an attempt to manage 70-hour days.
Four other items on Hall et al's survey showed significant gender differences:
- "I am aware of the symptoms of ADHD" - more women
- "I feel pressured by my time commitments [eg, school, work, extracurricular activities, family" - more women
- "I know students I can get stimulants from" - more men
- "I take stimulants with alcohol" - more men
Every illegal drug I ever used was offered to me. I'd feel like more of a mooch about it if I couldn't count the instances on my fingers, and the substances on my hands. Non-prescription stimulants, on the other hand, well... I'm glad that there weren't energy drinks when I was in college. There was one semester where I was routinely alternating Vivarin and Ginseng caplets on odd and even hours, in an attempt to manage 70-hour days.
Monday, April 7, 2008
Restaurant Tipping
Are men or women better tippers? A national telephone survey (Lynn, 2006) indicated that overall, men and women were equally (67%) aware of the "correct" expected tipping rate of 15%. Women were slightly more likely to know about the standard after controlling for a slew of other factors including race, age, education, and metropolitan status. Noll and Arnold (2004) surveyed restaurant servers about their impression of differences in tipping profiles of various kinds of customers (NB: the main focus of the study was race). Overall, servers rated men as better tippers than women. Female servers reported that white men were better tippers than white women; white male servers reported that women (regardless of race) were better tippers than men. However, when two servers kept diaries for two weeks, no differences were found between men and women's tipping rates.
I waited tables for about two years in college, on and off, and honestly, I never noticed a difference in tipping by race, which seems to be a huge predictor based on the tipping-research-literature. However, I was waiting tables in Boston, which meant that my customer base was overwhelmingly white1. I also didn't notice much of a difference in tipping by men versus women either. I'd be very interested to see a study from the customer point of view: whether servers provide different levels of service to groups they suspect are bad tippers.
1 recommended: See comments for discussion of why my assertion is B.S.
I waited tables for about two years in college, on and off, and honestly, I never noticed a difference in tipping by race, which seems to be a huge predictor based on the tipping-research-literature. However, I was waiting tables in Boston, which meant that my customer base was overwhelmingly white1. I also didn't notice much of a difference in tipping by men versus women either. I'd be very interested to see a study from the customer point of view: whether servers provide different levels of service to groups they suspect are bad tippers.
1 recommended: See comments for discussion of why my assertion is B.S.
Friday, April 4, 2008
Opposite-sex friendships
Many authors have proposed gender differences in the motivations for forming and maintaining opposite-sex friendships (OSF). Bleske-Rechek and Buss (2001) suggested that women more than men are looking for physical protection, while men more than women are looking for sexual access. Both sexes formed OSF to start long-term relationships. In general, however, men and women in this study rated the same qualities as important in OSF, and listed the same reasons for ending a friendship: distrust and betrayal. More recently, Bleske-Rechek told the LA Times (2008) that 15% of men versus 33% of women found that being attracted to their friends complicated friendships.
Koenig et al (2007) found that young pairs of opposite sex friends seemed to have good understanding of each other's romantic interests, but that girls underestimated (and boys overestimated) their opposite sex friends' sexual interest. Elsesser and Peplau (2006) found that the fear of sexual harassment accusations was a barrier to forming OSF in the workplace.
I'm probably a bad person, but I've actually stopped friendships from forming because of a clear lack of sexual availability. It takes me years of (largely inobtrusive -- I hope) lusting to form an actual platonic bond with someone. I probably have fewer than a dozen friends that I wouldn't sleep with for fear of damaging the friendship. I think most of my friends are pretty damn attractive, and I don't see a problem with that. Being around attractive people is pleasant.
for more Peplau, see stereotypes about lesbians in the workplace in "Queer @ Work" and the four gender differences in sexuality in "The shape of desire"
edit: There seems to be a free Politics of Humor conference at MIT in Cambridge, MA - today and tomorrow - sponsored by Graduate Consortium in Women's Studies. Looks interesting, if you're Boston-local.
Koenig et al (2007) found that young pairs of opposite sex friends seemed to have good understanding of each other's romantic interests, but that girls underestimated (and boys overestimated) their opposite sex friends' sexual interest. Elsesser and Peplau (2006) found that the fear of sexual harassment accusations was a barrier to forming OSF in the workplace.
I'm probably a bad person, but I've actually stopped friendships from forming because of a clear lack of sexual availability. It takes me years of (largely inobtrusive -- I hope) lusting to form an actual platonic bond with someone. I probably have fewer than a dozen friends that I wouldn't sleep with for fear of damaging the friendship. I think most of my friends are pretty damn attractive, and I don't see a problem with that. Being around attractive people is pleasant.
for more Peplau, see stereotypes about lesbians in the workplace in "Queer @ Work" and the four gender differences in sexuality in "The shape of desire"
edit: There seems to be a free Politics of Humor conference at MIT in Cambridge, MA - today and tomorrow - sponsored by Graduate Consortium in Women's Studies. Looks interesting, if you're Boston-local.
Thursday, April 3, 2008
Male sensitivity to female receptivity
The Daily Mail (2008) writes that "the female flirt is wasting her time", citing research by Coreen Farris that indicates that men are likely to miss cues from interested women, while the women are likely to interpret the non-response as non-interest. In earlier work, Farris et al (2006) found that men were more likely to confuse friendliness and sexual receptivity when a woman was "provocatively dressed." Male sensitivity to sadness also decreased in response to provocative clothing.
I think it's worth noting that most of Farris' earlier work focuses on risk of sexual coercion, and male over-interpretation of sexual receptivity. I also think it's worth noting that Psychological Science, the journal in which Farris 2006 and 2008 are published, is the same journal which published Lippa on "women's sexuality isn't hard wired" and Reiger/Bailey's penis-measuring bisexuality study.
see also: "Do You Want Me?" (Feb 2007)
I think it's worth noting that most of Farris' earlier work focuses on risk of sexual coercion, and male over-interpretation of sexual receptivity. I also think it's worth noting that Psychological Science, the journal in which Farris 2006 and 2008 are published, is the same journal which published Lippa on "women's sexuality isn't hard wired" and Reiger/Bailey's penis-measuring bisexuality study.
see also: "Do You Want Me?" (Feb 2007)
Wednesday, April 2, 2008
the "gender-reversed" brains of schizophrenics
Adrianna Mendrek, a researcher at the University of Montreal, reports that the brains of schizophrenic patients appear to display gender-swapped reactions. “In comparison to the general population, women’s brains seem masculine and men’s brains seem feminine," says Mendrek, in a press release (2008). This is a continuation of results Mendrek reported two years ago (press release, 2006), when her fMRI scans found that although female schizophrenics reported greater distress in response to a sad movie, male schizophrenics showed greater brain activation.
Mendrek's 2007 paper, "Reversal of normal cerebral sexual dimorphism in schizophrenia: Evidence and speculations", notes that Gur et al (2004) found a structural sexual dimorphism that was also reversed in schizophrenics (orbitofrontal cortex to amygdala ratio).
As discussed in February, men and women are equally affected by schizophrenia, but the age of onset and typical symptoms vary between the sexes. I'm reminded of a statement my first girlfriend used to make about the differences in how lesbians and gay men were treated. She said that society viewed lesbians as taking a man's place, and so they were moving up, and that this was less threatening than a man taking a woman's place, and lowering himself. I guess the reason I'm reminded of it is because I wonder if the age of onset is actually much different. Are early masculinized behaviors in women not seen as dysfunctional, where early feminized behaviors are immediately spotted?
Mendrek's 2007 paper, "Reversal of normal cerebral sexual dimorphism in schizophrenia: Evidence and speculations", notes that Gur et al (2004) found a structural sexual dimorphism that was also reversed in schizophrenics (orbitofrontal cortex to amygdala ratio).
As discussed in February, men and women are equally affected by schizophrenia, but the age of onset and typical symptoms vary between the sexes. I'm reminded of a statement my first girlfriend used to make about the differences in how lesbians and gay men were treated. She said that society viewed lesbians as taking a man's place, and so they were moving up, and that this was less threatening than a man taking a woman's place, and lowering himself. I guess the reason I'm reminded of it is because I wonder if the age of onset is actually much different. Are early masculinized behaviors in women not seen as dysfunctional, where early feminized behaviors are immediately spotted?
Tuesday, April 1, 2008
Researcher Profile: Henry Makow
Henry Makow's (2007) book of essays, Cruel Hoax exposes the Illuminati's agenda for feminism: to weaken the family. Endorsed by Ufologist Jeff Rense, readers compare its importance to that of texts like Satan's Government. Makow's mentoring for men is available in his online radio program, available at Save The Males, but his most practical advice may be in A Long Way to Go for a Date, a guide to finding traditional wives on the other side of the world, with compassion akin to leading sexologists.
It's rare that I encounter a PhD who speaks as non-equivocally as Makow. His clarity and focus are astonishing. In one excerpt, available on his website, he explains why I spent so much of my life feeling unloved. If only I'd let more men hold doors for me, the expensive and painful confusion I suffered could have been avoided. When I was still living in my God-given gender role, I totally bought into the feminist conspiracy. Actually, due to my hippie parents' flawed child-rearing, I never really embraced the gender role I should have. No wonder I was unhappy.
Note: See yesterday's comments for a response from Restructure!
It's rare that I encounter a PhD who speaks as non-equivocally as Makow. His clarity and focus are astonishing. In one excerpt, available on his website, he explains why I spent so much of my life feeling unloved. If only I'd let more men hold doors for me, the expensive and painful confusion I suffered could have been avoided. When I was still living in my God-given gender role, I totally bought into the feminist conspiracy. Actually, due to my hippie parents' flawed child-rearing, I never really embraced the gender role I should have. No wonder I was unhappy.
Note: See yesterday's comments for a response from Restructure!
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